Utopia of the Permanent Revolution
For Freedom, Welfare and
Development for Every Human Being
Adel El-Emary
First published in
Arabic in November 2019
Translated (by the
Author) into English in April 2024
Dedication
To My Wonderful Children:
Mervat
Index
1. What is the Permanent Revolution?
2. Human Nature
3. History Without End -
a Critique of the Idea of Salvation
9. Morality
10. Marxism
11. Post-Marx and Post-Marxism
12. Critique of the Project
of Socialist Revolution
13. The Failure of Utopian Socialism
14. Anarchism: The Magic Bullet
15. Modernism and Postmodernism
16. Intellectuals, Masses and Power
18. Post-capitalism
19. Mechanisms of the Permanent Revolution -
What is to Be Done?
The owl of Minerva takes flight only when the shades of night are
gathering
Hegel
What is meant herein
by the permanent revolution is a process based on destroying all current
political and social systems worldwide. The aim is not to create a new system
but to achieve the following three STRATEGIES: Freedom, Welfare and
Development, for every human being. These strategies can never be completely
fulfilled; however, it is possible to take mounting steps towards them without
their complete realization.
It is a never-ending
process in the sense that you never stop working towards these ceaseless
aspirations, so there is no ultimate goal or perfect “ending.” The logic behind
the idea of a “permanent revolution” relies on the impossibility of reaching a
static “perfect” system or bringing an end to history.
Every status
produced by the Permanent Revolution should open the door for another status
that is ever -changing. Nonetheless, the three strategies mentioned remain open
in front of the oppressed classes. Let there be more and more freedom, welfare
and development. Meanwhile, they are not considered holy or untouchable. On the
contrary, people can modify or add to them to suit their needs.
This does not mean
that the Permanent Revolution focuses on reforming the current systems or is
intended to work to improve the conditions of the masses within the framework
of the existing systems. Rather, it focuses on moving beyond; destroying and
superseding them, since every system preserves its interests and those of the
dominant class, thereby depriving the populace of achieving their aspirations.
Every step taken to
accomplish one of the aspirations of the revolution is considered a legitimate
step, and there are no sanctities in this field; starting from the literacy of
one individual up to being part of a violent revolutionary uprising or mutiny.
The sharp and
massive revolutions happen suddenly, occasionally and never fully achieve their
goals. The more effective way is to destruct the social systems and regimes at
all material and cultural levels, by implanting revolutionary foci at all these
levels, not as a mere prelude to a general explosion, but rather for the sake
of perpetual and profound radical change. Let the stormy revolutions be mere
moments in a process of continuous change, by destructing the system, and
depriving the ruling and exploiting powers of stability and tranquility. Along
with removing every obstacle that is existing or that arises and impedes
freedom, welfare and development of the public.
The book presents an
overview of the traditional theories of revolution; Marxism and anarchism, as
well as what took place in practice based on these theories. These involve the
revolutions which all failed to achieve their slogans and ended with
counter-revolutions which emerged in most cases from the womb of those
revolutions themselves, and the failed projects of building isolated ideal
societies. We have also provided a quick critical presentation of Post-Marxism
theories that attempted to overcome the dogmatism that characterized Marxism
after its Stalinist version had prevailed, led by critical theory of the Frankfurt
School. In tandem with a quick review of the “postmodern” theories that had
sprung up everywhere for decades and had done little to overcome the crisis of
the contemporary world. These discussions serve as a prelude to present what we
call the “Utopia” of the Permanent Revolution. It is meant a project for
radical change, rather than ideological justification.
In addition, the
book includes chapters on ideology, religion and morality, presenting
critically the most prevalent theories in these fields. On the other hand, it
presents a perception that we believe is more dynamic and consistent with the
project of the Permanent Revolution, rejecting the idea of seeking the ultimate
Truth. This perception advocates for undermining ideologies and sanctities
prevalent in the contemporary world and the perpetual action against them all,
as they are weapons in the hands of the existing social systems. It also
includes a chapter about intellectuals, containing a critical presentation of
the prevailing theories of the supposed role of the intellectual and
revolutionary vanguard, and provides a different perception of the actual role
played by intellectuals.
We have espoused an
idea, claiming that the most revolutionary force in the contemporary world is
the New Proletariat: the marginalized and semi-marginalized sections. Not in
the sense that they have a historical role or a mission, but in the sense that
they are most capable of opposing authoritarian forces such as the dominant
classes and the state apparatus, if they decide to do so. This is a fait
accompli created by the mechanisms at work within existing systems.
The book ends with a
chapter which takes up the contemporary world status, as a prelude to the final
chapter which deals with the possible mechanisms of the revolutionary process
based on all of the above.
We did not adopt a
specific method or philosophy, nor did we offer a systemic theory. We broke
away (not boycotted) from philosophy, metaphysics, ideology, the idea of
historical teleology, inevitability, functionalism, and all sanctities and
theoretical models. Nevertheless, it involves many ideas that are consistent
with postmodernism, Marxism, anarchism, structuralism, libertarianism,
existentialism, and others. All of these ideas work together in the strategies
of the Permanent Revolution and the mechanisms of its praxis.
For the sake of
honesty many of the ideas presented herein are referenced to their sources, in
recognition of the credit due to their creators.
The psychological
drives and motives are incorporated into all subjects of the book and their
role in the movement of society and history is discussed. Therefore, a chapter
(chapter two) was written on the study of the human mind, taking care to deal
with human nature as mere inclinations; flexible, contradictory and reacting
with human culture and experience. Because psychological schools are
diversified, we have not committed to a particular school but adopted the
broadest ideas in this field, and those most closely related to common
scientific data.
***************************
'Human
work is only fulfilled with shortage, and reaches its peak strength with
weakness'
Humankind has a goal that it must strive for but never be able
to achieve
Kant
There is no single
conception of the revolution that is agreed upon by all people, including
intellectuals and even the revolutionaries themselves. The concept of
revolution ultimately depends on the social position from which the person is
looking.
There are various
fields of the revolution: economic, social, scientific, political, cultural,
etc.
It has been
historically demonstrated that every revolution ends with a counter-revolution
against its own slogans. Among the most prominent examples: the French
Revolution, which stopped at the fulfillment of the aspirations of the
capitalist class and then turned against the lower classes, establishing the
Directory. Thereafter, Bonaparte’s coup came to put an end to the revolution
and to complete the establishment of the capitalist system, without achieving
the goals of the populace. The goal of the Russian Revolution was the
establishment of a socialist system that would lead to communism, a society of
freedom. However, the counter-revolution began very early with the brutal
oppression of the left opposition, ending with the building of the bureaucratic
system with its well-known tyranny.
Even when the slaves
had succeeded in their revolutions, the matter paved the way for a new slavery
system. One of the most egregious examples is the Zanj Rebellion in Iraq during
the Abbasid era, which was a blatant example of these revolutions.([1])
Whenever
revolutionaries and advocates of freedom and equality achieve victory, they
often turn it into a basis for new oppression and exploitation. Subsequently,
new revolutionaries emerge embracing the same slogans of freedom and equality. Typically,
after a successful armed revolution, the country is governed through coercion.
This pattern repeats in all revolutions because the aspirations of the people
during the revolution exceed the capabilities of the revolutionary forces,
leading to a counter-revolution. Every revolution inherently contains elements of
a counter-revolution due to conflicting interests among the participating,
revolutionary leaders, organizations and the new rulers with those of the
general public. The new revolutionary regime tends to prioritize its own
interests, perpetuating the cycle of revolution and counter-revolution. Humans
are not inherently altruistic; they act to fulfill their own desires. This
applies to leaders, intellectuals and revolutionaries. Therefore, revolutions
do not always progress smoothly towards achieving their goals. However,
revolutions do bring about incremental improvements in freedom and equality,
benefiting certain social groups more than others. This necessitates ongoing
struggles to address the needs of still suffering groups.
While the
contemporary worker enjoys more rights and freedoms than past slaves, modernity
has also brought comfort alongside ongoing conflicts, dominance and oppression.
The lofty slogans of
revolutions, such as Liberty, Fraternity, Equality and socialism have yet to be
fully realized. The broad interpretations of these slogans allow new
authorities to adapt them to serve their own interests.
It is unrealistic to
expect a perfect Salvation Revolution that brings about complete freedom and
prosperity. The most achievable outcome of a revolution is incremental progress
for the people, marking just a step on an endless journey. Neither will the
revolution achieve total victory, nor will the counter-revolution be
permanently defeated.
The concept of the
Permanent Revolution: This concept was used by Marx and
Engels in the sense of the continuation of a revolution of some class until all
its goals are realized. Later, Trotsky used it in a different sense; however,
its content differs from its name. Trotskyism meant the emergence of the bourgeois
revolution under the leadership of the working class and its transformation
into a socialist revolution, leading to the construction of a socialist system.
This is not a permanent revolution in any way; as it ends with the
establishment of a new system.
What is meant by the
Permanent Revolution herein is the Permanent Revolution in the literal meaning
of the words. That is, the revolution without the horizon of establishing any
system, but the perpetuation of the revolutionary process, the recurrent
destruction of any social system and preparing to work against it even before
it emerges. This is to be done by continuously struggling for the elimination
of the factors of repression, stagnation, backwardness and all forms of
domineering, always paving the way for more freedom and the dignity of
individuals, for the advancement of science and industry and the welfare of all
people.
It is not a final
goal, but open horizons; purposes that are not achieved once and for all but
remain open and extendable; goals on their way to exist; absolute strategies
that are incomplete at a specific point, requiring the perpetuation of the
revolutionary process to achieve more.
The strategies of
the revolution are defined as mere proposals: Freedom, Welfare
and Development. These strategies are the aspirations of the oppressed
and exploited social classes that are deprived of all conditions of a decent
life as defined by the slogans raised in all their revolts throughout history.
They are neither “natural” nor sacred. These should be open, defined by the
people as they wish at this or that moment, liable to modification, addition
and even superseded. Neither human nature, nor the alleged laws of existence
nor the historical teleology -as adopted by some philosophers- determine the
conditions of human lives. These strategies can never be completed; rather,
people in their revolutions aim to have the maximum possible degree of freedom
and welfare, that has no ceiling. What creates the basis for achieving this and
that is scientific and technological progress; something that has been
demonstrated by human history. At last, people have to decide to do their best
to actualize their aspirations without waiting for a hero to do it on their
behalf, by grabbing what they consider their rights.
When it comes to
designing an ideal system, it may seem theoretically easy, but defining an
ideal system that may not be feasible within the constraints of existing
cultural and material resources can lead to illusions and frustration. Therefore,
it is more practical, and also more revolutionary, to always keep the future
open. Similarly, the ideal system is ultimately just a system; one that can
solidify stagnation and hinder further human aspirations.
In short, any
revolution that aims at establishing a specific system carries within itself a
project of a counter-revolution.
Solving any problem
creates a new problem, so human beings have to endeavor all the time to
overcome thieir problems.
What is meant can be
described as a permanent revolutionary transitional state.
The Permanent
Revolution is the rebellion of the oppressed social sections against the
dominant powers in all fields; in the economic, cultural and organizational
components of society, including political and social thought, institutions and
against the privileged elites and all supporters of the social system; any
system by and large. It also involves a rebellion against all forms of
alienation, where people create sacred objects or delusions in various fields
and submit themselves to them.
It also means a
revolutionary action, which is the opposite of reformism, since reforms change
the conditions within the framework of the same system. Contrariwise, a
revolutionary action destroys the joints of the system and implants revolutionary
foci in its body, for the purpose of changing it, while preparing to change the
next system too. This is the difference between the Permanent Revolution and
reforms; in the first case, the revolution takes from the system without giving
it anything, but in reforms, a mutual exchange of benefits takes place; some
gains are in exchange for contentment, silence, or surrender. In the
revolutionary action, if you succeed in preparing for another action, and if
you replace the system with a new system, be ready to oppose this new one as
well; as it will surely face you with a counter-revolution. This does not
exclude the fact that defeats and retreats of the revolutions are possible.
The process of the
permanent revolution involves temporary pauses to digest what happened,
overcome mistakes and then re-attack again. It is in a state of permanent
attack, having temporary pauses only to prepare for more attacks. In fact, it
is against the peace of mind; the mind suffering from the contradictions
between human aspirations and their reality.
The
slogan of the Permanent Revolution does not emerge from the laws of existence
or history, but from the dream of humans for freedom and welfare; from their
desire to create meaning of their lives and from the will of humans to realize
themselves; from the subject, not the object. This project is just a proposal
for discussion among revolutionary forces in this world, not a theory that
declares the discovery of Truth and the right pathway.
The revolution is
not the “right” decision, but it is the decision of a human who strives for
self-realization and to build self-esteem.
The idea of the
Permanent Revolution does not go beyond the capabilities of humans. People have
been in a revolution with regard to technology and social organization since
the dawn of history. They discovered ways to make tools from stones and trees,
afterward used fire, invented agriculture and began to transform from clans to
peoples, nations and international groups; changing the ways of their lives,
languages, etc. The idea is not strange to them, but what is presented herein
is a permanent revolution on all levels, against the powers of repression and
exploitation.
This introduction
ends by proclaiming that the first of human “rights” is the right to rebel and
revolt.
**********************
'The
struggle and using force against conservative powers for the perpetuation of
the revolution is not a struggle between right and wrong or genuine and false;
it is not a struggle between values, but a struggle between two parties:
revolution and counter-revolution, and between Utopia and Ideology'
Human essence is no abstraction inherent in each single individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations
Karl
Marx
The debate about
human nature has not ended in terms of existence and its concept. ([2])It
is a controversial subject, originally rejected by many philosophers and
thinkers. Some argued that humans have no fixed characters, such as being
vicious or benevolent, and that their ability to create culture allows them
to change themselves as they determine what they are; they are free and freedom
is imposed upon them.([3])
Sartre did not observe here that this freedom which humans are predestined to -according
to his claim- is a part of human nature, prior to their existence and not
subsequent to it; an essence; therefore, against his doctrine. There are even
those who have dealt with human nature in detail, ([4]) as
well as those who consider that personality is acquired, denying any role for
heredity. ([5])
Marx dealt with the
subject of human nature occasionally in some of his writings. ([6]) His opinion can be
summed up as: human nature consists of a group of inclinations, motives and
instincts, that work to meet human needs. The interpretation of that nature is
precisely the interpretation of human needs, with a tendency to satisfy them.
He distinguished between human production and animal production: the animal’s
product meets only its direct need, while humans form their need in their mind
first before creating it. Here there is an emphasis on the power of
consciousness as the essence of human nature.
Some leftists have
been insisting on denying the existence of something called human nature, as if
its adoption leads to the recognition of the existence of natural, non-social, “laws”
of society; as if capitalism is exonerating. Many of them tend to accuse class
division of all responsiblity for “evil,” promising that everything would be
fine in a socialist society.
Philosophers also differed about what
differentiates humankind from nature, so they went on various doctrines,
including labor in Marx’s opinion, reason according to Hegel, language in
Habermas’s view, etc.
- Human beings are
originally a part of nature. However, they have transcended it, creating new
things such as tools, manufactured consumer products, even manufactured raw
materials, relations of production, thought and art, principles, values, social
institutions and the state. Animals are satisfied with adapting themselves to
the environment, getting their immediate needs if possible and dying if they
cannot achieve this; subordinated to the balance of the environment.
Contrarily, humans try in a perpetual quest to make the environment fit with
them, exceeding its balance and recreating it in their favor. That is
humankind; a product of nature and its opposite. Accordingly, the moment of
human rebellion against nature can be defined as the moment in which they
re-created the world again, as a result of their interaction with the
environment; that is the production of human society. This started with the
production of language, abstract concepts, manufactured means of production,
programmed work processes, relations of production, institutions and culture,
etc.
Thus, since their
separation from nature began, the entire world has been considered their
property, dealing with it as such.
- It is not possible
to reveal a natural state of a human individual outside of society and history.
Human beings only existed within a community with a history, including the
Neanderthals. Thus, it is impossible to find a “raw” human nature that
manifests itself in each individual. Accordingly, human nature can only be
inferred, not empirically demonstrated except in very broad categories.
- Human nature
includes the body and the psyche, which are inseparable. It is not limited to
their biological formation; not all their traits are found in genes. There are
no genes pushing them to create relations of production, ideology, or a system
of teamwork. Nonetheless, they must create all this under the drive of their
biological and psychological needs, against the environment, to achieve the
greatest possible degree of preserving themselves and their species, and
satisfying their comfort.
- Psychology is not
actually a true science, but rather consists of various theories about which
thinkers differ more than they agree. There are dozens of schools; the
differences between them are endless. It is enough to look at the vast
differences between Freud and Jung, despite their belonging to the school of
psychoanalysis. This “science” is mostly subordinated to politics and the
interests of the authorities just like philosophy. American schools of
psychology, for instance, try to drive the individual to adapt to society. This
is along with the widespread dissemination of “scientific” mythoi.([7]) Every attempt to render it an experimental science
has produced a particular approach that is not universally accepted by other
researchers. Social psychologists do not acknowledge one method to study social
human nature, and there are many unanswered questions, such as the
interpretation of people’s responses to a particular stimulus. ([8])Moreover,
there is no agreement about human instincts in terms of their identification or
even their mere existence. Some use the word “instinct,” while others refer to
instinctive tendencies or innate qualities. There is also a lack of agreement
on the interpretation of human behavior.
No particular school
of psychology is followed here, but rather the most general and common ideas or
those more consistent with common social phenomena and known scientific facts.
- The social factors
that subjugate the individual and communities do not originate from outside
humans, but are their own production. The same applies to private property and
the state. Engels made two attempts to explain the emergence of classes and the
state, but he did not provide any clear interpretation beyond a human tendency
towards selfishness and dominance.([9]) No
other theory has succeeded in proving their necessity despite people’s will. “Good”
and “Evil” originate from people, not from accidental or metaphysical factors.([10])
Everything that has happened throughout human life coincides with human
nature. Even acquired qualities and ways of behavior can only be acquired if
there are innate instinctive inclinations to this acquisition.
- The core of human
nature consists of processes of adaptation with the environment, and the
byproduct of this adaptation and the noise or random effects that remain cannot
be neglected. A simple example of these processes can be borrowed from biology:
the umbilical cord is the product of adaptation with the environment to
preserve the life and development of the fetus. The byproduct result is the
belly button that arises in the abdomen after the end of the umbilical cord’s
role, but the noise here is the unique form of the belly button in each
individual.([11]) This sequence
occurs in all adaptation processes.
The first goal of
every living creature is to survive, reproduce and satisfy instinctive desires;
that is, enjoyment or pleasure. These are innate genetic propensities.
Consequently, any psychological mechanism acquires the appropriate form to
achieve these goals. The mind’s activity is a complex set of defense and attack
mechanisms, whose ultimate purpose is to ensure the continuity of the organism
and give it the ability to grow and develop safely. ([12]) However,
humankind differs from other animals in his ability to create and recreate new
needs for satisfaction and enjoyment, such as engaging in various forms of sex,
non-instinctive games, preparing diverse foods, engaging in different types of
tourism, etc. All this indicates that there are various non-instinctive
mechanisms of enjoyment, but this requires natural tendencies to feel pleasure.
- It is not possible
to determine the human nature of the abstract individual. There is no -in fact-
a human individual not part of the community, since a human is a species-being,
and can only live in a community for biological and psychological reasons.
Moreover, individuals share certain characteristics which they can have through
being a community. Language can only be created and used in a community,
children can only be raised in the presence of a family, and humans cannot face
natural disasters and diseases except by teamwork. If people live as
individuals, the death rate will be very high, and they will continue a life of
gathering and hunting forever. This implies that humans will live as primitive
animals forever or even perish. So, the human community precedes the
individual, in the sense that the individual person does not exist and live
except in a society. The human community is advantaged in comparison to animal
species due to the mental-linguistic abilities of human beings, their
meticulous organization and the ability to innovate and build civilization and
make history. Without these special characteristics, people could have lived,
like chimpanzees, in aggregates without history or civilization. Consequently,
the individual mind is the mind of the social individual; the son of the human
community.
- It is not possible
to establish a precise definition of a human, such as: a social or political
animal, a producer of machines, a sane or speaking animal, since there are many
animals having the same capabilities, albeit to a limited degree. But man is
concerned with dozens of traits that distinguish him from other creatures, such
as physical structure, including the hand, foot, ability to walk upright, brain
structure and the ability to produce abstract language. These traits served by
his throat anatomy and the speech center in his brain. This results in the
ability to think, abstract and produce concepts, to have a strong memory, etc.
After the physical formation comes the human ability to produce and develop
sophisticated means of production, establish relations of production, a mode of
production, produce ideas, ideology, and various social institutions and make
history, including the change in all of the above human innovations. All these
are traits that distinguish humans. Ultimately, it made them the supreme power
on earth; the only being capable of adapting to the environment intentionally
and consciously, by increasing their control over it. This is performed in part
by manufacturing, altering and changing the environment, afterward by producing
artificial materials. Thereafter, humans became able to transform themselves,
by removing damaged or unnecessary organs (extra finger, for instance) and
organ transplantation and lastly by modifying, treating and developing genes.
All this implies the ability to develop, as there is no other being on earth
capable of developing his community and developing his body intentionally. This
ability is explained by all the special features that were aforementioned.
- The human psyche
is very flexible and complex, encompassing a large number of intricate
mechanisms with various motivations, incentives and goals. Due to the
complexity and diversity of psychological mechanisms, human nature is likely to
manifest in variable and context-dependent behavior rather than as invariant
impulses as suggested by some personality theories. Moreover, human behavioral
flexibility does not stem from general psychological mechanisms but from
numerous specific mechanisms that are activated and interconnected in complex
chains based on the adaptive challenges they face. Humans derive their
psychological flexibility from a multitude of complex functional mechanisms.
All of this makes studying human nature a challenging task, yet it is
undoubtedly a subject worthy of knowledge and understanding to some extent.
- Intelligence,
experience and culture play fundamental roles in shaping an individual’s
response to any stimulus. Human instincts are mere inclinations, and their
responses are not automatic; rather, humans utilize their mental capabilities
and engage in broad thinking compared to animals. Therefore, the creation of
civilization is an inherent aspect of human inclinations, stemming from the
nature of human beings, and any community unable to achieve this is at risk of
displacement, whether through natural selection or extermination. Civilization,
the product of humanity, reshapes individuals to a certain extent and
significantly influences their behavior.
- Conscious and
unconscious processes: Consciousness refers to awareness, specifically the
thoughts and feelings that a person is consciously aware of having.
Psychologists have debated the existence and content of the unconscious, with
behaviorists and experimentalists dismissing it due to its lack of direct
observability. Freud distinguished a section of the unconscious known as the “preconscious,”
which is latent and temporarily unconscious, easily transitioning to conscious
awareness. The unconscious, on the other hand, remains inaccessible without
special effort.([13]) For practical
purposes, the unconscious is considered a unified component encompassing
instincts, forgotten information, repressed desires, talents, language usage,
individual and collective experiences and more. The concept of Reason will
be used in the sense of the faculty of conscious thinking based on logic and
evidence, which is not an entity but an innate ability. The unconscious can
be revealed through behavior analysis, dreams, language use, literary and
intellectual output, among other means. Freud suggested that the unconscious
influences about 90% of human decisions, while Jung agreed that it constitutes
most of the mind. This is practically a very plausible idea.
- A human being is
not a purely rational animal, as some philosophies suggest. Rather, humans are
part of the animal kingdom, responding to basic needs such as hunger, thirst
and the need for thought when necessary. While humans can engage in abstract
thinking, they do so in response to biological and psychological needs, not as
a leisure activity. The human mind, in accordance with Kautsky, is
conservative, acting in response to drives when necessary.([14]) The unconscious
exerts a greater influence on human behavior than the conscious mind, playing a
significant role in history and society. Humans are not and will never be
entirely rational beings due to the dominance of the unconscious shaping their
behavior.
- There is no doubt
that reason has played a big role in the process of creating civilization, but
it cannot be stated that civilization is merely a product of reason; since
human instinctive inclinations are the basis for preserving self and species, besides
achieving sexual pleasure and other satisfactions. These are at the heart of
human nature and the determinant factor of human behavior, including conscious
thinking. The creation of civilization is the product of human desire to meet
their needs, to achieve various kinds of pleasure, to control nature to protect
themselves from its dangers and to preserve the species. All these are
instinctive inclinations, while reason is only a tool used to help achieve
them.
- The human mind generates
ideas through its interaction with environmental and social conditions, driven
by the need for knowledge to achieve maximum safety. Detecting harmful and
fatal foods, causes of disease, how to build constructions that protect against
the anger of nature, making weapons and tools necessary for life, making and
constructing roads, etc.; all this requires research, investigations and
thinking. However, what is the interpretation of the continuation of memes
(units of ideas) in people’s minds for varying periods, up to thousands of
years after the disappearance of the material factors of their emergence?
Humans do not act according to pure reasonable thinking, but reason is only one
of their weapons, as they are not submissive to it, as aforementioned, but it
is an instrument for achieving desires. Consequently, it is impossible for all
human behaviors to be “reasonable.” There are motivations for behavior that are
not related to reason. In spite of the progress of knowledge and abstract thought,
humans have never become rational, except from a technical standpoint. Rather,
he used reason to develop forms of oppression and hegemony, to invent forms of
exploitation and mass murder in the most heinous ways for the sake of goals
that can only be considered despicable, such as nationalism, racism and
auto-centrism, to rob the labor of others, to dominate and just to satisfy the
desire to control and humiliate other humans. However, he also did the
opposite: produced forms of cooperation, solidarity and sympathy with the
suffering, the exploited and even the animals. Human communication is
essentially not subordinated to reason, but instincts and feelings play the
main role, which are neither good nor vicious. It cannot be ignored that what
is being said now is also subordinated to this method of thinking. Even ideas
are not a product of pure reason activity, but a result of people’s interaction
as a whole with reality. Inherited and accumulated culture -agreeing with
Kautsky- also plays an important role. Therefore, in most cases, human ideas
are illogical; illusory, and fanatical, having logical fallacies, since most
mental processes take place outside of the conscious. The dissemination of
ideas varies with the power of their influence on people’s desires, not
necessarily their material interests or the conformity with objective facts.
They can become strong forces, but only to the extent to which they are answers
to specific human needs.([15]) The
supremacy of the unconscious explains why people make decisions that may harm
them, plus creating unjustifiable phenomena, such as the cult of personality,
consecrating the state and the army, racism and all forms of fanaticism. For
all this, mental proof and logic do not guide most people. It is quite usual
for logically contradictory ideas to coexist in the minds of the vast majority
of people and to act against their stated convictions. But perhaps with
development and civilization progresses, people may become smarter and more
reasonable.
- Reason is by
nature instrumental; it is an instrument for acquiring knowledge and for
conscious thinking, capable of turning things into perceptions and making
conclusions. However, what a person decides is only what he tends to; what
meets the call of his unconscious, especially its component of instincts as
aforementioned. After all research, investigations and detection of facts, he
makes just a choice; not “right” or “wrong.” To make it clear, for instance,
you may know completely that this or that food is harmful to your health, but
there is no correct decision regarding eating or avoiding it. The decision
depends on a balance of psychological desires, such as the goal of
self-preservation (whether by avoiding harmful food or eating it due to the
inability to get a healthy alternative), the goal of killing hunger and seeking
approval of others with whom they share their food to preserve social
relationship.([16]) It is also easy to identify the relations of
exploitation in society by reasonable thinking, but the decision to accept or
resist them depends on the interaction of many psychological factors; not being
“right” or “wrong” decision. Thus life goes on; reason is only an instrument,
but the unconscious is the one lying behind the decisions (this is the same
view of Freud). Even the conspicuous facts presented by reason may be accepted
or rejected by a person, according to his emotional motivations. He may deny
explicit and confirmed facts or accept completely misinformation; as desired.
It can be added that even scientific discoveries and the course of scientific
research are made under unconscious motivations; imaginations, intuitions,
guessing and suspicions. These are indispensable for the work of the “pure”
reason; and science fiction in this regard must not be ignored. There are even
ideas that become clear and consolidated in dreams or when one is in a state of
hypnagogia (between sleep and wakefulness); what is known as revelation (not
meaning any religious revelation at all). This shows the essential role of the
unconscious. Even a thinker, when he creates an idea, must add hypotheses and
fantasies that have nothing to do with reason. Finally, reasonable formulation
of ideas is made after they are discovered, and become consolidated under the
influence of both the unconscious and the activity of reason. It can -with
great confidence- be determined that all forms of creativity and progress are
made under drives from the unconscious, especially instincts or feelings, which
employ reason to be actualized. Illogical and subjective thinking is consistent
with certain incentives, such as fear, an inner desire to achieve certain
goals, a desire to feel safe, a desire to achieve status, jealousy, envy, etc.
In conclusion; reality is perceived -through human senses- by the human mind,
which is not a pure and neutral reason. So, human perception is not entirely
objective.
- It can be
emphasized that the mind is not logical([17]) and does not work in a consistent or orderly
manner. It operates using the components of the conscious and the unconscious,
which are replete with fantasy, myths and facts. If the human mind were working
logically, it would not need to create the science of logic. The dominance of
the unconscious over the conscious mind leads to the use of illusions, where
something is perceived as something else, like a mirage. Additionally, dogma or
belief, which certifies things without evidence of their existence or reality,
is prevalent. The most famous example is the belief in the existence of gods,
irrational deduction of ideas, or belief in the superiority of a specific race.
Delusions, false beliefs and perceptions of unreal things, such as feelings of grandeur
or persecution in an imaginary way, are also common. This is in addition to
lying for various purposes, such as gaining power, status, escaping punishment,
or seeking approval from others, along with defense mechanisms (some of which
are mentioned later). These are distinct from pathological perceptions caused
by serious neurological and psychological disorders, such as confabulation
(memory loss leading to the creation of stories to conceal memory loss without
awareness of the falsehood), hallucination (sensing something that does not
exist), schizophrenia, etc.
This perspective is
supported by the existence of phenomena that defy logic and cannot be explained
by economic, social, or environmental factors. For example, why did some people
choose to exploit others, leading to the emergence of social classes after
egalitarian and classless old societies? Why did the majority accept being
exploited by a class? Why did some individuals decide to oppress the rest of
society by establishing a state apparatus when old societies were autonomous?
Why did the majority tolerate this oppression? Why do some people continue to
accumulate wealth beyond their needs? Despite brutal conflicts between ancient
clans and tribes over resources, why did they not choose to share instead of
engaging in devastating wars? Why do not all people unite to overthrow
exploitative systems when they could do so quickly? How does ideology play such
a significant role in human life? Can most people be deceived for thousands of
years without being willing to break free from this deception?
In conclusion, the
human mind basically operates under the influence of the unconscious. Moreover,
the conscious mind itself includes many delusions, so the mind does not work
logically; instead, logical thinking mixes with illusion and delusions.
- Human beings are
characterized by biological weakness. A child needs their parents for many
years to learn to stand, walk, speak and care for themselves. A woman needs
assistance during pregnancy, delivery and child-rearing. Humans lack sufficient
muscle power to face predators and can only confront diseases and natural
disasters through teamwork. They also require many years to accumulate and
store experience in their minds and to train in dealing with the environment.
They are fully aware of their weakness, which drives them to strive to overcome
it by creating civilization and controlling nature. There is no other way, as
humans as a species are conscious of their relative weakness and the consequent
lack of complete safety. This drive to discover the best way to adapt to
environmental conditions ([18]) begins in the child,
who is in need of care from others. Thus, human biological weakness serves as a
drive for building civilization.([19]) Each human individual feels more vulnerable; therefore,
a human being is a social being, in need of a community and love, just as a
child needs their mother. Consequently, expulsion from the tribe in ancient
societies was a severe punishment. As the community is a prerequisite for the
continuation of human life, it was necessary to organize its life. That is why
its existence became superior to the individual, even among some other animals.
The type of social rules for each community depends on its living conditions,
the amount of knowledge available at a particular time, and the types of
dangers it faces, including the risk posed by other communities. This
collectivism ensures the continuation of the species and, of course, sexual
intercourse, protection and a sense of security, which is generally lacking due
to the terror of the natural world. Language can only be produced and used in a
community. In any community, the individual is subject to certain rules and
regulations, thereby relinquishing a part of their freedom in exchange for
safety. This subordination or adaptation to the community compels the
individual to control or repress certain instinctive inclinations, especially
related to sex, within the boundaries of the community’s rules and norms.
Similarly, the need for love and friendship arises as an instinctive human need,
serving as a mechanism for self-preservation, achieving safety, receiving love
in return and integrating into the community. Self-control is necessary for
actions such as urinating, defecating, changing clothes and having sex.
According to Freud, all forms of control and repression do not signify the
disappearance of instincts but rather their transformation into the
unconscious, whether in the young or the old.([20])
The child’s feeling
of weakness towards adults is marked, with a strong sense of powerlessness. He
either resorts to searching for power or uses his weakness and explicitly
expresses it to obtain adult sympathy, which is also a mechanism to achieve
power. His preference for one of the two mechanisms influences his subsequent
psychological formation.
Living in a
community and teamwork by and large make the individual feel stronger and gain
courage and daring. Society creates in the individual the feeling of being
supported by some power. Because the individual belongs to this power, he feels
that he has overcome his weakness. This feeling may partially explain the
phenomenon of totemism, as taken up by Durkheim, ([21])which he
interpreted as representing the emblem of the clan. It may also explain the
phenomenon of the sacred in general. However, living in a community also makes
the individual feel less free, unless he is directly involved in setting up the
community system.
Nonetheless, humans
as a species-being in a community also feel vulnerable to nature, as well as
vulnerable to other communities, in addition to jealousy and envy of them.
Therefore, the community also endeavors to achieve status, whether towards
nature or other communities, by various possible means. Among these means are
creating very effective fictional entities and concepts, such as totem, tribe,
this village, that city, this nation, that state and all other sanctities and
collective rituals, to unite a large community whose members do not know each
other personally. The legend of “Peugeot” is a good example. ([22])
Not only does
weakness drive humans to progress, but also their power or their ability to
overcome their weaknessws. Such as their ability to walk upright, their skilled
hands, their ability to speak and create language and their exceptional mental
capabilities.
Despite successive
progress, man will never be able to dominate nature. The universe that extends
to unimaginable dimensions is not controllable, so nature will remain forever
superior to humans. Even a cosmic particle may immediately destroy all that man
has made on Earth.
- In the struggle
for survival and comfort, the ordinary individual strives for Status Striving
within the community, which is Power; superiority. As aforementioned, the
individual feels inferiority towards his community and finds himself involved
in collaboration, rivalry and competition with others; collaboration for the
interests of the group and competition for satisfying his own needs, biological
and psychological, especially his sexual desire. This inclination accomplishes
several goals consistent with the instinct of self-preservation, without being
directly instinctive: providing good living conditions, increasing
opportunities for enjoying sex and other forms of pleasure, and ensuring good
conditions for raising children. This inclination involves striving for power,
domination, sovereignty, and competition which may become a violent conflict. Moreover,
it is one of the actions to overcome the feeling of vulnerability by this
compensatory mechanism.
The same inclination
was observed in higher animals (chimpanzees, e.g,([23])).
This is what Nietzsche called der Wille zur Macht (The Will To Power),
considering it the essence of life. Hence, natural selection works to favor
this type of people over others. This status is achieved through striving for
excellence, by competition, and driven by envy, jealousy and hatred. The
inability to achieve power and superiority directly may lead to neurosis,
hence, to a compensatory “policy” in diversified ways, according to the
conditions of the social environment. In this case, the individual resorts to
using indirect mechanisms to achieve power, such as love, making friends,
sympathy for others or caring for them, volunteering in public service, helping
weak persons and even submitting oneself to the strongest and identifying with
him. In addition, behaviors such as hypocrisy, groveling, repression,
displacement, rationalization, sublimation, projection, reaction formation,
fixation, identification, conversion, compensation, denial, fantasy,
displacement, negativism, withdrawal, aggression, regression, etc. ([24])The
goal is to achieve power and reach an internal state of balance. This may
explain the phenomenon of accepting submission by most people to a dominating
power as a compensatory mechanism; since no one can dominate people without
their ability to submit. The existing social system determines the socially
acceptable way for an individual to achieve status, subjecting the type of this
status to its norms. The status may involve accumulating the greatest amount of
wealth or the individual becoming a brave fighter, a volunteer in the service
of orphans, struggling against injustice, having great knowledge in one field
or another or in ideology, etc. On the contrary, it is possible to achieve a
status by becoming a criminal, a serial killer, or by plundering the
possessions of others; thus achieving sovereign power that becomes socially
welcomed under coercion and subjugation. In all cases, the individual becomes
respectful, depending on the environment in which he lives. It is society’s
values and ideals that pave the way for the individual to choose status. In
some societies, having a large number of children is an important value, while
in others having money is a measure of success, etc.
There are two states
of individual existence: 1. The independent ego, which is self-conscious and
can take and give in balance and independence, depending on her internal
capabilities. 2. The weak ego, which cannot exist on her own, resorting to one
of two compensatory mechanisms: either she conquers the other ego and controls
it (the sadistic) or joins herself to another ego (the subordinate, submissive,
or dependent person).
Humans generally
have multiple inclinations and different capabilities that lead to various phenomena.
One seeks to achieve status, i.e., power; and if he fails he may resort to the
mechanism of submitting or identification with the stronger. If this mechanism
also fails and life becomes intolerable, he may resort to other mechanisms:
escape and searching for either a sanctuary or disobedience and rebellion. In
extreme cases, he may show a destructive tendency towards others, in the form
of individual violence or destructive rebellions. When he is unable to destroy
others, he may tend to destroy himself. The defeated person is potentially
aggressive or ready for aggression with the emergence of a possibility.
A glaring example of
the different mechanisms for achieving power is the behavior of herdsmen and
peasant tribes in the past. The herdsmen were usually poor and suffering from
living hardship; that is why they were aggressive, bold and vigilant because
they did not feel safe. On the other side, the peasants were achieving power
through abundant production; that is why they tended to be peaceful and more
democratic than the herdsmen. Usually, the herdsmen felt envious towards the
peasants and possessed by greed, attacking them to plunder their wealth. The
same is true for the peasant tribes that were afflicted by poverty, and the
rich herdsmen tribes were subjected to the same attacks. This phenomenon leads
to the conclusion that ethnic intolerance and racism originate from the desire
to dominate, envy and greed; the scourges of the human species which are among
the mechanisms of achieving power. The conflicts happening in the European Union
and menacing its integration are a model for this. Indeed, the tendency for
vengeance has been found in all civilizations as a defense mechanism. Even
showing weakness sometimes plays the role of the defense mechanism of human
groups (for instance, the victimhood discourse of some groups, including e. g.
Zionism and the Muslim Brotherhood). Moreover, one of the mechanisms of
achieving power is working for the future: saving means of livelihoods,
violence and domination.
To counteract egoism
and stimulate altruism or create a balance, people have created general “humane”
values and many peoples have added to them a sacred character by attributing
them to the teachings of the gods. However, this failed to prompt people to
prioritize love and cooperation because egoism, till now, is stronger than
altruism.
- The human mind
tends to reveal the relations between things and phenomena. It is capable of
abstraction, analysis and inference, using this ability to produce concepts and
abstract thought. This does not mean merely the desire to think; rather, it is
a mechanism to control and command the environment, which contributes to
facilitating the fulfillment of human needs. The terror of nature, its ups and
downs and its constant aggression push humans to fight for imposing their
control and employ it on their behalf. This control requires a good knowledge
of the world and recognition of necessity to be used. This is one of the most
important drives of development and building civilization. However, humans do
not do this all the time, but only when needed, but all the time he is acting
mainly under the guidance of his unconscious.
- Human needs never end,
and there is nothing called essential needs separated from time and place.
Actually, human needs are always relative and variable, and the starting point
is to secure the immediate needs. The more people achieve a degree of progress,
the more new and indispensable needs emerge for them. For example, people
decided to protect their bodies from cold and hotness using animal skins, but
when they found it rough, they decided to search for other sources, so the
industry of clothes from plants appeared. Afterward, it became necessary to
manufacture tools for spinning, weaving, then dyes, developing this industry to
suit the increased population and afterward mineral extraction to manufacture
machines, etc. Thus, the development of economic life proceeded. Regarding
wars, they required the use of sticks, stones, then as conflicts continued, the
need for minerals appeared and competition between human communities played an
important role in developing weapons. The appearance of exchange pushed the
people to reduce the cost of production, and money became necessary besides its
industry. The drug industry also necessitated the production of medications to
overcome their side effects or making them more effective and less risky.
Accordingly, human needs are infinite and never satiable. There is also an
imperative need to satisfy instinctive psychological needs, to enjoy and to
escape from painful reality; the cruel world, by creating innovations or
escaping into fantasies and delusions, which is a tendency for both the
individual and the human species. The ingenious person is never satisfied,
never feels contentment, so he needs more and more success. Even the wealthy
guy is usually not satisfied with what he gathered, even if he accumulates a
fortune, but he seeks for more. He is psychologically in need of this
fulfillment and more without end; being in a constant frantic pursuit of
success. If one decides to hoard money, his greediness for it does not stopbecause
collecting value, whether use (in the premodern society) or exchange (in the
era of capitalism) has no ceiling. He feels poverty and fears that his wealth
may be lost, so he grows it constantly. As Marx considered, “all the things
which you cannot do, your money can do.”([25])
If those
people stop achieving more success, they suffer from neurosis. However, it may
be the opposite; that their struggle is a symptom of neurosis and personality
disorder. ([26])Likewise,
the human community has not and will not be satisfied with its development and
welfare, and will continue to work for more. All human innovations are a
compensation for a feeling of inferiority, weakness and insecurity. It is an
endeavor to achieve status, whether material or spiritual. Humans found
themselves thrown into the universe without support, faced by the deadly wrath
of nature and in need of protection without finding it, which is a very
difficult situation. They need safety that is never full, and whenever they
make a step on the path of knowledge and progress they can achieve a higher
degree of safety, which remains just a dream on the way to exist, without
actually being fulfilled. This requires the transmutation of the human into a
God, which is impossible. Because safety is more important than freedom for human
species life, people may sacrifice their freedom to get security. This explains
many social phenomena.
- The human psyche
has instincts of self-satisfaction, including self-preservation, avoiding pain
and seeking pleasure; sexual and others, besides the instinct to preserve the
species. The first inclinations are the basis for egoism, and the second are
the basis for altruism, sympathy and emotional empathy. People may act,
individually or collectively, with either of them, depending on the circumstances;
the type and level of risk facing the individual and the community.
([1]) One
of the most important books about this is Faysal Al-Samer's book “The Zinj
Revolution” (Arabic).
([2])
For example, Michel Foucault, in: A debate between Noam Chomsky and
Michel Foucault about human nature, 1971, p. 23 (Arabic translation).
([6])
“Human essence is no abstraction inherent in each single
individual. In its reality it is the ensemble of the social relations”
(Theses on Feuerbach, 6). “If I am determined, forced, by my needs, it is
only my own nature, this totality of needs and drives, which exerts a force
upon me; it is nothing alien” (The Grundrisse, NOTEBOOK II, the Chapter on
Capital). “Man is directly a natural being. As a natural being and as a
living natural being he is on the one hand endowed with natural powers, vital
powers - he is an active natural being. These forces exist in him as tendencies
and abilities - as instincts” (Economic & Philosophic Manuscripts of
1844).
([7]) It
was reviewed by Scott Lillenfield and others in the book “50 Great Myths of
Popular Psychology.”
([9])
Anti-Dühring, V., State, Family, Education - The Origin of the
Family, Private Property and the State.
([10])
Metaphysics in the linguistic sense goes beyond the physical realm. It refers
to unnatural ideas, essences, and powers that transcend nature or reason.
Examples include God, the purpose of existence, wisdom beyond tangible things
and the interpretation of phenomena based on hidden reasons.
([16])
For example: there is the phenomenon of sugar and carbohydrate
addiction, which is widespread all over the world. It is considered a disease
and one of the most important factors of obesity and diabetes mellitus type II
in modern time. The cause of this addiction is unknown, but most likely it
resembles drug addiction.
([17])
There is no consensus about the concept of logic, but the most accepted meaning
is: the science that studies the rules, general laws of thought and human
feelings. This is the concept used in this book.
([19])
Fromm, the Fear of Freedom, p. 34 (Arabic translation). Freud considered that
the sexual repression is the motive of civilization that seems an exaggeration.
Most reasonably, sexual repression or sex control is the result of
civilization.
([22])
Yuval Noah Harari, Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind, pp.
30-34: The author explained the legend as follows: Peugeot is a company that
started as a small family business, then became a producer of many cars and
gained tens of billions of euros in profits. But if all Peugeot cars are
dismantled and turned into scrap, all employees of the company are terminated,
and all of its equipment is sold, the company remains in place. It can borrow money, hire new employees, build new factories, buy new
machinery and resume production. The company is just a “Peugeot” brand, which is
a facade.
([24])
Psychological defense mechanisms: these are unconscious strategies on the part
of the individual, as weapons of psychological defense that lead to
obliterating or erasing the truth. The goal is to overcome the state of tension
and anxiety resulting from unresolved frustrations and conflicts which are
threatening his psychological security. They aim is to bring about
psychological balance for the individual, to protect and defend oneself and to
maintain self-confidence and respect.
They are normal mechanisms that occur in all people,
psychologically normal and abnormal, but the difference between them is their
moderate use at the first party and excessive use at the second. Excessive use
of e.g., Introjection, leads to depression, as well as Projection, which leads
to Paranoia, excessive Displacement may lead to Phobia, and so on.
These unconscious mechanisms are different from the conscious
control of behavior by adaptive mechanisms, which are intended and performed by
a self that is conscious of itself. The individual may use more than one
defense mechanism to satisfy or confront more than one drive or more than one
situation at the same time.
Here is a brief explanation of some of these mechanisms:
1. Sublimation: It is a defense mechanism used by individuals to
reduce stress and anxiety. It is one of the most important and widespread
mechanisms, where individuals with high mental health express undesirable
motives in a socially acceptable way, gaining appreciation and respect. Through
sublimation, a person can replace repressed aggressive behavior with socially
and personally acceptable actions. It is a successful means of coping with
emotions. For example, an individual may use sublimation to channel anger
through sports or express socially unacceptable ideas through creative outlets
like drawing, acting, or writing poetry. For instance, satisfying sexual
desires by writing romantic poetry.
2. Compensation: is a mechanism used when a person feels
deficient in one area and seeks to strengthen another area to make up for this
deficiency by achieving success. The goal is to gain power and prestige. For
example, a child with a speech disorder may become a skilled orator, or someone
compensating for feelings of inferiority due to physical weakness or chronic
illness by excelling in science.
3. Projection: The individual attributes defects and undesirable
characteristics that cause his pain to other people, arousing feelings of
guilt, even with magnification. In addition, he accuses others of behaviors
that he deems socially unacceptable. For example, describing people and
accusing them of indifference, selfishness, envy, fraud, lying, miserliness, or
bad manners, etc. He gets rid of his faults by projecting them onto others as a
self-defense mechanism to protect himself from anxiety. An example (mentioned
by Freud) is a jealous husband who describes his wife as lacking sincerity,
projecting a character in himself onto her because he cannot face that aspect
of himself. Other examples include a liar who accuses others of lying, a person
who harbors hostility towards others and mistreats them, and a woman who loves
a man but accuses him of flirting with her, and so on.
4. Identification: In identification, a person unconsciously
adopts the thoughts, values, and feelings of another person to fulfill desires
that he cannot achieve on his own and to feel self-satisfied. He collects,
borrows, and attributes to himself the desirable characteristics of others,
molding himself into the image of those who possess these traits. This process
involves submitting oneself to the personality, values, and behaviors of
another individual. Children who fear their father and cannot confront him may
seek to emulate his behavior to overcome their fear, and students may identify
with their teachers. A common example of identification is the audience's
identification with a cinematic protagonist, experiencing joy in their success
and sorrow in their suffering. Another significant example is known as
identification with the aggressor, where fear motivates the identification. A
girl who is afraid of her mother may unconsciously identify with her to avoid
harm. Identification differs from simulation or imitation, as the former is an
unconscious process while the latter is a conscious act. Identification, in its
simplest form, plays a crucial role in self-growth and personality development.
Many
manifestations of identification and attachment to others stem from social
compassion and empathy for others' problems, leading to a sense of unity with
others and the ability to empathize with their circumstances. This defense
mechanism is commonly observed in individuals with schizophrenic, paranoid, or
manic tendencies, shaping their behavioral patterns. Feelings of inferiority
can serve as a strong motivator for identification, particularly evident in
psychotics, especially those with paranoia.
Projective
Identification is a step beyond abstract projection. In Projective
Identification, the individual not only projects motives onto others but
actively seeks to see those motives embodied in them to avoid acknowledging
them within himself. When experiencing psychological stress, an individual
practicing Projective Identification not only deflects pressure onto others by
accusing them but also tries to make the other person feel that pressure,
behaving as if they are experiencing it themselves, and may ask them, "Why
do I see you sad?"
5. Introjection: It is the internalization of feelings, emotions,
norms, and values of others into oneself. The individual responds as if these
elements are part of himself. It is the opposite of projection; instead of
denying the existence of certain characteristics in oneself and attributing
them to others, introjection involves incorporating the characteristics of
another person or object into one's own psyche. For example, an individual may
internalize social behavior norms and express them as if they are his own.
6. Regression:
It is the reversion to an earlier stage of development through behaviors that
characterize that stage, in order to achieve the same results that were
obtained during that period. This can provide a sense of security and comfort
when facing problems or frustrating situations. Regression is closely related
to the need for safety. Examples include crying to get attention or attract
love, reverting to behaviors from childhood, such as bedwetting, or returning
to past comforting habits. This defense mechanism is often observed in children
and can also occur in adults after experiencing difficult situations.
7. Fixation: It occurs when a person's growth
is halted at a particular stage due to the perceived threat of progressing to
the next stage. It is considered a rejection of the growth process and can
manifest as emotional immaturity. For example, emotional childish behavior
exhibited by a young man or adolescent social behavior displayed by an adult.
8.
Dissociation: Involves a break in how one’'s mind processes information leading
to a sense of disconnection from thoughts, feelings, memories, and
surroundings. This can impact one's sense of identity and perception of time,
often resulting in feelings of alienation or unreality. An example of
dissociation is someone praying while simultaneously insulting religion
9. Negativism:
Is the tendency to resist directions from others, with active negativism
involving doing the opposite of what is asked. This behavior is commonly seen
in young children.
10. Isolation:
A mental defense mechanism that involves isolating feelings from an unpleasant
or threatening cognition in order to avoid emotional stress. For example,
surgeons in the operating room may resort to using this defense mechanism until
the operation is successfully completed.
11. Passive-Aggressive behavior: expressing anger and
hostility towards others in negative or indirect ways, such as through insults
disguised as humor or disruptive actions that are important to others.
Pretending not to understand is a typical behavior.
12. Aggression:
An attack directed at a person or thing resulting from feelings of hatred and
anger towards others. It can take multiple forms, which may be hidden if
directed towards an authority or powerful person. Examples include
maliciousness, defamation, stinging jokes, or satire directed at enemies.
13. Withdrawal:
Escaping and moving away from obstacles to satisfy motives and needs, sources
of tension and anxiety, and states of frustration and intense conflict. It is a
negative behavior as evident. Examples include emotional withdrawal, isolation,
and loneliness to avoid frustration in social interaction.
14. Fantasy: Resorting to the realm of imagination to achieve
success that has not been achieved in reality, such as excessive daydreaming.
15. Conversion: the transformation of emotional stress or
repressed impulses and their external expression through sensory, motor, or
physiological processes. Examples include blast trauma affecting soldiers on
the battlefield, leading to hysterical blindness and temporary dumbness due to
severe emotional trauma.
16. Rationalization: interpreting failed or socially unacceptable
behavior using logical reasons and excuses that are personally and socially
acceptable. It differs from lying in that unconscious justification deceives
the individual themselves, while lying is a conscious act aimed at deceiving
others. Rationalization is often used to maintain self-esteem and respect. This
mechanism is called “sour grapes”: after the fox failed to reach the grapes, it
convinced itself that the grapes were sour. An example is justifying the
failure to marry a desirable beautiful girl who refused to complete the
marriage by labeling the girl as bad.
17. Denial: The unconscious denial of painful, stressful and what
is directly threatening the self by denying its existence or confronting it.
For example, some individuals refuse to accept the death of persons they love
and act as if they are still alive.
18. Undoing: A defense mechanism that works to nullify or erase an
idea or improper act that threats the individual, by undoing it by another
countermeasure, to get rid of the feeling of guilt or an accompanying stress.
This expresses repentance. For example, a mother who punishes her child,
feeling guilty as a result, tries to retract or nullify that punishment by
flooding him with positive emotions. An individual, who intended to be violent
towards a person, after rethinking, treats them very kindly.
19. Repression:
This is the first primary unconscious defense mechanism. It involves the
exclusion of what is unacceptable to the conscious mind, such as painful, frightening,
and shameful motives, emotions, and thoughts, and expelling them from the
conscious to the unconscious. This is a way to avoid awareness of impulses and
motives that one prefers to deny, leading to a decrease in feelings of anxiety.
However, repression does not eliminate the existence of the motive that has
been repressed; it remains preserved in the unconscious and may resurface in
dreams, errors, slips of the tongue, feelings of distress, guilt, or mental
illness. The ongoing struggle between repressed motives and the self continues
until a level of clarity is reached, prompting the self to employ other defense
mechanisms to distort reality and maintain a sense of strength and control.
Repression
differs from suppression, which is a conscious and intentional act of
postponing the satisfaction of drives and instincts until suitable conditions
arise. For example, suppressing pent-up jealousy, hatred, or socially forbidden
sexual desires.
20. Forgetting:
This defense mechanism involves hiding unacceptable or threatening experiences
and situations from the conscious mind, such as forgetting an unwanted
appointment or the name of a disliked person.
21.
Displacement: Is the redirection of emotions from a threatening subject to a
less threatening one. For instance, redirecting aggressive behavior towards a
family member instead of a manager. Displacement is a common defense mechanism
in cases of phobia.
22.
Generalization: It involves applying a specific experience to other similar
situations, as seen in the proverb "once bitten, twice shy."
23. Reaction
Formation: This mechanism entails expressing behaviorally reprehensible motives
and desires in an acceptable opposite form. It involves displaying feelings
that are contrary to one's true emotions, such as showing affection towards
someone one actually dislikes. This defense mechanism helps hide true
motivations from the conscious mind.
24.
Symbolization: Symbolization is an unconscious process of indirectly
representing an unconscious idea, conflict, or desire through another symbol.
For example, a person's interest in women's clothing may symbolize their
interest in the opposite sex.
25.
Idealization: It involves exaggerating appreciation to the point of losing
objectivity and ignoring flaws. This can lead to ascribing only positive
qualities to a person while disregarding their faults.
26. Acting-Out:
It is an exaggerated expression of feelings when an individual struggles to
express emotions in a more controlled manner. For example, throwing or breaking
objects in a fit of extreme anger.
27.
Intellectualization: It involves isolating feelings from an event and replacing
them with logical thinking. This defense mechanism focuses on rationalizing the
situation to avoid emotional distress. For instance, analyzing the causes and
statistics of a serious illness to distance oneself from the emotional impact
and maintain a rational perspective.
(Several references).
